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Today's Topics: 

Osiris, Isis, and Horus (continued)

As Horus prepares for war, Ra looks into Horus' magic eyes to foretell the future of the battle with Set.  In the midst of doing this, a strange black pig rushes out of the thickets and injures Horus' eye with its tusker.  Bewildered and in pain, Horus screams at the sight of his own wound.  Ra takes him home and gives Horus his Divine Eye, called the Udjat (or Wadjet) to replace the one ruined by Set.

Two important symbols should be addressed here.  First, notice that Horus' eyes were really windows into time and space.  Symbolically, Horus is often described as having two celestial eyes, one representing the sun and the other the moon.  This implies that Horus can see both horizons equally.  He understands sunrise (birth) and sunset (death) equally.  These dualistic forces combined into one face represents the unification of the dualities, which only a great god can attain.  When one of his eyes is ruined in the attack, Horus temporarily loses his foresight and understanding of the cosmic dualities.  By replacing his injured eye with a divine one, Ra allows Horus to become even more powerful than before (Thanks, Set!).  Furthermore, the Egyptians incorporated this story into their own dietary codes, which forbade the eating of pork (pigs), a tradition that was passed along to the Jews, perhaps brought to Canaan and Judea by Moses after his escape from Egyptian captivity.

This last third of the tale develops the action-packed fighting scenes between Horus and Set.  The section entitled "The War in Heaven Begins" shows Horus and Set engaged in a legal argument, presided over by the remaining seven gods of the Ennead.  Horus emerges from his childhood prepared to fight this battle to avenge his father's death.  Much like Jesus, Horus comes out of his exile a strong and intelligent man ready to tackle the biggest problems.  He is honored by all and the women all find him to be handsome, but he does not date or socialize.  Rather, he is all business, and he devoted his time on Earth to fulfill one mission -- vengeance.

We see Horus in these last chapters increase his power and his symbolism.  One new symbol introduced here is the golden disk of the sun, which shines above his head, similar to a halo around the head of a saint in a stained glass window.  The orb is not really hanging over his head, but rather a symbolic representation of his holy stature and his connection to Ra, the sun god. One way that Horus illustrates his newly attained power is by morphing into a new symbol, the Winged Disk. In this form, Horus becomes assimilated with Ra, and he is therefore referred to by a hyphenated name: Ra-Harakhti (Ra-Horus). The symbol of Ra (the sun disk) combines with the wings that reflect Horus' falcon identity to reveal a combined character that represents incredible power.

Horus enters the court pleading his case for the throne of Osiris, and Shu and Thoth agree.  Atum, however, is upset that he was not asked about his opinion, nor was Set allowed his say in court.  If the trial is supposed to be a fair one, so far it has not been achieved.  Set is allowed to speak, and he resorts to name calling (for example, Horus is deemed a "child").

After 80 years of conflict, the Ennead finally decide to write a letter to Neith, the primordial universal Mother Goddess, who writes in reply that Horus is the rightful recipient of the throne.  In fact, she threatens to collapse the separation between the heavens and the earth, which would destroy the earth.   Interestingly, Neith favors Horus, who acts as a defender and protector of order, while simultaneously threatening chaos.  This shows that Neith embodies both sides of this duality: order and chaos.

Atum is still angry, and calls Horus "despicable," possibly suggesting that Atum is a jealous god (akin to Yahweh, who describes Himself as a "jealous god" in Genesis).  Perhaps Atum fears losing his glory to a younger deity.  Perhaps because Horus is not the first-born sun of Nut (Atum's creation), Atum shows bitterness toward him.  Set, although he was defended by Atum, turns to him and insults the great god (it's Set's nature to do so).  Atum mopes by himself, but is soon joined by Hathor, who exposes herself to Atum to make him smile.  Hathor, if you recall, was the goddess in the form of Ra's eye in the story The Destruction of Mankind.  Hathor is a complex figure, but part of her essence is that of pure sexuality and healing, so we see her playing a more familiar role here.

Back in court, Set and Horus make strong cases.  In fact, Set has a very strong legal argument, which must resemble a real-life inheritance dispute in ancient Egypt.  Isis, however, grows more vocal and excitable in the courtroom, prompting Set to move the court to an island in the middle of the river -- without Isis.  The ferryman, Nemty, is asked to transport the other gods, but not Isis.  However, Isis changes her appearance to that of an old hag and bribes her way across.  Once she arrives, she changes into a beautiful woman, whom Set makes sexual advances toward.  Isis tells a false story about a wife who lost her husband, only to find that a stranger steals their farm.  Although this is a parallel example to what Set did, he does not make the connection, and shows sympathy for the woman's suffering.  This, of course, implicates himself, and Isis calls him on it.  Set feels better only after Nemty is punished (his toes are cut off).
 
In court again, Horus is awarded the white crown of Lower Egypt, while Set receives the red crown of Upper Egypt, but Set wants both crowns.  He challenges Horus to a physical duel -- submerge themselves in the Nile in the form of hippopotami.  The first one who rises for air loses the crown.  After a few days under water, Isis panics and casts a fishing hook into the water, catching her son Horus, who screams to the surface.  She unhooks the barb and casts again, this time netting Set, who likewise screams in agony.  Although she wanted to help, she ended up making both gods mad.  Horus grows so enraged that he cuts off Isis' head and walks away with it.  Thoth gives Isis a new head -- that of a cow.  Isis likes it, since it reminds her of her mother (Nut, shown in a cow form in the early stories in the unit).  The cow is a reverential figure, representing motherhood and provides sustenance.  Ironically, in ancient India, the early Hindus survived years of constant drought by suckling the milk from cows, hence the reason for cows being sacred in Hinduism.

To show another connection between Egypt and India, we see the same triad concept of "god" in both cultures.  Check out the following table:
 

Egyptian God	Hindu god	concept
Osiris	Brahma	creator/resurrector
Isis/Horus	Vishnu	protector/preserver
Set	Shiva	destroyer

 

After Horus apologizes to his mother and relinquishes her head, he rests outside, only to be attacked by Set, who plucks out his eyes.  Hathor comes to the rescue and cures Horus before they re-enter the court chambers.  The Ennead tell both Horus and Set to make nice and to celebrate together.  Horus and Set throw a party, where Set eats only lettuce and Horus drinks too much.  Set convinces Horus that they should share the same bed, especially if they are supposed to rule together side-by-side.  After all, they spent 16,000 years sleeping beside each other in Nut's cosmic womb, so what harm could one more night bring?  However, in the middle of the night, Set sexually violates Horus by placing his semen into Horus' cupped hands.  When Horus awakens, he is horrified at the sight and runs to his mother, who cuts off his hands, discards them into the river, and cleanses his body.  She also stimulates her son so that she can collect his semen, which she pours into the lettuce patch.  When Set eats the lettuce, he becomes "pregnant," but does not know it.

Interestingly, these ancient cultures considered lettuce to be an aphrodisiac (sexual stimulant).  It really isn't, but the Egyptians and Mesopotamians thought that it was based on the milky substance that oozes out of the pores in the lettuce when it is plucked from the base of the plant.  The milky substance resembles both mother's milk and a man's sseminal fluids.  Eat all the lettuce you want!

In court, Set believes that he will finally attain the throne after he tells the Ennead that Horus has received the "labor of the male," causing the Ennead to spit and hiss at Horus.  However, Horus asks Thoth to "call" the semen of each god.  When Thoth calls for Set's semen, it answers from the marshy bog, where Isis had discarded it.  When Thoth calls Horus' semen, it asks where it should exit Set's body.  Emerging as a gold sun disk, the semen rises above Set to represent the power of life and regeneration.  The Ennead, of course, side with Horus.  Set, not to be defeated, then suggests racing in stone boats.  He clearly doesn't "get it," does he?

In the section entitled "The Slaughter of Set's Monsters," Horus embarks on the boat of Ra to use as a battleship against Set and his army.  At the prow is Horus, whose two eyes emerge as two warrior goddesses -- Nekhebet (the vulture goddess) and Utachet (the cobra goddess), both of whom attack and enemies that are directly in front of the boat.  This is very similar to Set's main duty at the front of the solar barque, attacking the monsters that attempt to steal the sun disk.  The demonic appearance is supposed to evoke fear, and can be described as Horus' "game face."

As the battle continues, Horus captures Set, whose body is beheaded and dragged in disgrace around town.  This scene was the inspiration of the horrific episode in Homer's Iliad, where Achilles drags the beaten body of Hector around Troy for a week before he runs out of energy.  Why is Horus allowed to desecrate Set's body with the Ennead's blessing?  Good question.  However, just when you want the story to conclude -- surprise!  The dead Set was really an impostor!

In the final battle, the real Set transforms into a giant hippo that straddles the Nile.  Horus himself grows larger and becomes a giant version of himself (sounds like a bad Godzilla movie, eh?).  Against the wishes of the Ennead, Horus thrusts his harpoon into Set's hippo body, killing the antagonist at last.  His body is then fed to the dogs and the vultures, similar to how the evil souls are discarded to the jackals in the Hall of Judgment.

We discussed why the Ennead asks Horus NOT to kill Set in the final battle scene, when the giant Horus slew the red hippo (Set) in the Nile to finish him off (at least until the next page when Set appears again in court).  Why would the Ennead make such a request?  Likewise, why would they not punish Horus after he overtly disobeyed their command?  Several students suggested that Horus was battling set to seek vengeance on his father's death, and therefore he must complete his quest, regardless of what the ineffective court of his elders might say.  This may suggest that family bonds are always stronger than our connection to the state or the law.  Perhaps the Ennead simply wanted to promote a peaceful ending to this war, perhaps fearing that Set would simply return to court with another cock-eyed scheme to steal the throne.

Back one last time in the Hall of Judgment, Horus once again presents his case ... but so does Set!  Why?  As much as we may want him to, Set will never die.  If he did, there would be no dark side of the dualities, and life as we know it would be nonexistent.  Remember that Set plays the role of the destroyer, so he MUST play this role for eternity.

Anyway, Isis complains again, and, like before, the Ennead ferry off to an island without Isis, who once again bribes the ferryman, changes into a young woman, tells Set an analogous story, and Set once again steps into the trap.  This is the last straw for Ra, who finally turns on Set and tells him to give up.  In a bizarre twist, Osiris is then asked who should receive the throne (guess who he wants!).  Set then challenges Osiris to a fight as well.  Seemingly without end, Thoth then breaks out the balance scales, where Osiris' judgment is found to be superior to Set's, finally forcing a contrite Set to step aside.  Horus is then awarded the dual crowns (white and red), he gives his Udjat eye to Osiris, who then completes his journey to the Duat, becoming a god in the heavens with the others.

Set is then given the task of holding one side of the ladder to heaven, with Horus on the other side.  A soul must pass between Horus and Set before climbing the ladder, symbolizing how we all must live through the dualities of this world before we can become unified in the afterlife.  In the end, Set becomes just as important as Horus.  More importantly, Set is allowed to work in a position where he can utilize his strengths in a productive way to the universe.  If his nature is to be combative, then placing him at the front of the solar barque will allow him to protect the sun boat by destroying its fierce enemies who seek to destroy the boat (and the universe as well).  Whenever you see a troublemaker kid (or some rebellious young person who constantly gets in trouble), what we really see is someone who has not found himself or his place/purpose in the world.  Set pushes the limits, causes a lot of heartache, but eventually finds his rightful place amongst the gods.

The Journey to the Duat

This story is something that I cobbled together a few summers ago when I first organized these stories for the unit.  I came across hundreds of little text snippets from pyramids and coffins in ancient Egypt.  When placed in sequence, I found that they told a story of the journey into the afterlife, into the realm of Osiris in the constellation of Orion.  This is called the Duat.

First, we need to see the distinctions amongst the different states of the soul -- the ba, the ka, and the akh.  The BA is the personality of a person, or the memories and influences left behind by someone.  The BA can travel across time and space, just like we still influence others long after they are gone.  For example, the Founding Fathers still leave their thumbprints on America over 225 years later.  The ka is really the "soul" or spirit force that animates the person's body.  It must be nourished after the body's death with food offerings while it waits around for the 70 days before the "Opening of the Mouth" ceremony is performed, which releases the ka skyward.  In the heavens, the ka is reformed with a "double" version of the body, so that the pharaoh can become a complete identity once again (akh).

After death, the pharaoh's body would have been mummified.  First, four major organs would be removed from the body and stored in canopic jars for safekeeping.  These jars were decorated with the heads and symbols of the four sons of Horus (which we did not see in any of our stories).  The purposes and explanations of these jars can be seen on the following web page: http://www.akhet.co.uk/4sons.htm

Notice that the initial section, "At the Moment of Death," makes many references to the Great Wheel of the universe, constantly turning.  Time and motion are constant in this journey, and nothing stays the same for very long.  Once liberated from the tomb, the ka soul will be directed skyward, through the channels in the pyramids, that point the spirit to the Duat.  On the upward journey, the soul is offered a ladder to climb.  This ladder is the gateway to the heavens, and it is guarded by both Horus and Set, who hold the ladder steady, one on each side.  This implies that a person must pass through the world of dualities before ascending into the heavens where the king can become unified with the gods.

As the journey begins, we see the king being placed into the Solar Barque, the sun boat of Ra (also called the Boat of a Million Years -- "million" was the Egyptian concept for "eternity").  The boat departs on the abundant water as the sun has set and the twilight ensues. The first five hours of the trip become increasingly dangerous, with serpents and monsters attacking the boat in an attempt to stop its progress.  Set is one of the gods on the boat who uses his daggers to fend off the tyrants who threaten its movement.  Although the first few hours depict oceans of grain being harvested (an agricultural metaphor for dying), the vegetation and water quickly dry up until the boat can no longer float.  It must be dragged across a zig-zag pattern of obstacles that make the journey more difficult and frightening, especially since winged serpents are crawling everywhere.  By the fourth hour, the boat itself transforms into a giant serpent who is better equipped to navigate in the dust.

During the sixth hour, the real fun begins.  At the sixth hour -- or midnight -- we see the world at its darkest and most frightening.  Now the real work begins for the dead king, who must confront hundreds of characters, questions, and quizzes before he is allowed to pass through to the east.  Notice that the boat is constantly traveling to the east.  The boat (sun) sets in the west, but is always moving toward the east, round and round.  Remember when Inanna descended into the underworld?  She traveled to the east in that story too.  We had questioned why death and the east were associated together, but now it makes more sense -- death is a rebirth, not an ending; hence, the easterly flow.

Also during the sixth hour, the king faces many gods who serve as judges and juries.  The king must perfectly name the gods and tell them exactly what they want to hear, lest they be devoured into nonexistence.  The king faces four separate examinations, the last by Thoth who announces the king's presence into the Hall of judgment.  During the "Weighing of the Heart," the king will have his conscience weighed against the white ostrich  feather of Ma'at (justice), and the outcome will be either eternal life or destruction by the Ammut, the "Devourer of the Dead."  Notice that this promotes the greatest of all dualities -- eternal life vs. nonexistence.

Then, the king must face two courts: one where he declares his innocence, and the other where he must name each juror and tell each one what each wants to hear (called the Negative Confessions).  Notice some of the behaviors the king has to tell the judges.  He has to convince them that he has not caused pain, agony, or destruction on earth.  He also has to inform the council that he has not acted or spoken deceitfully or stolen from another person.  A few of these seem impossible for humans to achieve, such as never being angry or increasing his wealth.  If you thought that heaven was difficult to attain in your religion .... try explaining to your God why you committed the sin of "wading in water" or "babbling."

Once the judgment has passed, the king then can relax a bit and enjoy the ride to the sunrise.  The monsters, however, still attempt to attack the boat, but they are warded off by Isis and Set who work together to cast spells to vanquish the foes against the solar barque.  By the eighth hour, the king begins to don his robes of purity so as to be more presentable to the gods in the later hours.

By the eleventh hour, the solar barque arrives at a place where the riders witness the uncoiling of Metwi, the world serpent who encircles the world.  After defeating Apophis, the grand serpent tormentor, a life-giving serpent awaits the king, showing again that serpents are not always bad guys.  The king and the other gods are guided through the serpent through the tail, and then they are birthed out of its mouth on their way to the sunrise.  The boat turns around, sails backwards, lifts up the sun (by the scarab beetle), pushes the solar disk into Shu (the air), and the whole cycle occurs once again.  The pharaoh is welcomed into the Duat with open arms and praises, Osiris once again becomes reborn, and the sun is again journeying across the sky to illuminate and inspire the living one more time.  It all comes full circle, and it won't end for a million years (an Egyptian term meaning forever).

Notice that the aspect of personal responsibility is evident in this culture, a sharp contrast to the more fatalistic views of the Mesopotamians.  Although eternal life was originally relegated to the pharaohs (believed to be the descendants of the gods) the common people gradually began to believe that they too could rise into the skies as gods and live eternally with Osiris.  In order for this to take, the journey had to be filled with danger and various "tests."  Whereas the Mesopotamians thought that they were at the total mercy of the gods, the Egyptians came to understand the god within us all.

Egyptian Folk Tales

You should have noticed that these stories were very different from the classical myths that we have been examining together.  These stories are later additions to Egypt's literature, and they involve mostly human protagonists rather than gods.  Thus, each of these folk tales communicates a different message to the audience: one of personal morality rather than divine worship.  This is why I asked you to find the moral lesson in each of them.

The Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor

Since the Egyptians believed that personal behaviors determined one's afterlife, their later stories often were filled with moral lessons, unlike the literature of the Mesopotamians who used their stories to understand how Nature operates around them.  Please keep in mind that the Mesopotamian literature reveals hundreds of profound messages, but very few stories of the gods rewarding the good behaviors of people.  For example, Utnapishtim receives eternal life, even though he did not do anything really great (sure, he obeyed the gods, but anyone could have been asked to build the boat).  What was Atrahasis' reward?  Adapa's?  Gilgamesh's?

Working with the Reading Guide questions, most students came to see the serpent who helps the sailor as a representation of a god.  The sailor behaves honestly by answering the serpent's questions, eventually gaining trust with a creature very different from the self.  Some students saw the great lesson of this story to be one of patience and respect.  We must treat all of God's creatures with the same reverence if we wish for them to assist us to the best of their abilities.  One student suggested that the sailor was tested mostly by having to accept a god who was not part of the official Egyptian pantheon.  The sailor would have had to treat all gods the same way, without bias or suspicion.  Perhaps by passing this test the sailor was allowed to share his adventures with his family.

The unnamed sailor immediately makes a sacrifice to the gods when he washes ashore on the island.  He could have eaten the food, but he sacrificed it instead.  This may have been his best decision, and perhaps it is the reason that the serpent treats the sailor with dignity and respect.  After all, the sailor could have easily been the serpent's lunch rather than his honored guest.

Also, these folk tales illustrate an interesting literary adaptation: the first references of the gods into one unified identity: "the God."  You may have noticed that "God," with a capital letter "G," was used more than "gods" with a lower-case "g," and no individual god was named in the story.  This literary and cultural convention illustrates changes in Egypt's government and social structure.  As Egypt became more modernized, the people came to see all forces of Nature as an extension of the same forces.  This unification of the pantheon is also seen in the ancient Hebrews, who also unified the local pagan gods into one identity: Yahweh.  Also, this use of "the God" to refer to all of the gods as likewise adapted by the ancient Greeks.  If you read The Iliad or The Odyssey (the oldest epics in Greece), you only see the gods referred to by their individual names (Athena, etc.).  However, if you read the high philosophers (Aristotle, Socrates, Plato), you will see that they too adopted this convention, referencing the forces of the universe simply as "the God."

Also, notice that the island of Punt will be "changed into waves," suggesting that the island is more of a mirage than a real place.  Perhaps this occurs so that looters and plunderers would not seek their fortunes on this island of plenty.  Clearly, the sailor does not want money and riches from this serpent, but is showered with these gifts because of his trust and obedience.  Had the sailor arrived seeking wealth, then he may have met a different fate.  By shipping the serpent's gifts back to the pharaoh, the sailor can possibly compensate for the loss of the king's ship and his crew of 150 men.  It also evokes this sense of mystery about what lies beyond the boundaries ....

The Tale of the Two Brothers

Bata, the younger brother of Anubis, acts as the servant to his brother.  This character Anubis is not the god Anubis (son of Osiris and Nephthys).  Rather, many Egyptians were named after their gods.  For example, in The Book of Thoth, Nefrekeptah's name incorporates the name Ptah.  Even today, we know that many children are named after their religion or religious figures (Adam, Noah, Ruth, Sarah, Christian, Seth, Lakshmi, etc.).

Bata tends to the cattle and even sleeps in the stable, perhaps out of respect to his brother's marriage.  Characterized as the true and faithful younger brother, Bata does everything well and with stellar moral dignity.  When he is tempted by his brother's wife, he rejects her advances and asks her to forget about the incident, promising to never speak a word of this to Anubis.  However, out of fear perhaps, she lies to Anubis and tells him that Bata made the advances to her.  Anubis then tries to kill his brother in a sneak attack, but Bata's life is saved by the communicating cattle.  You should note that the cow is always a symbol of life, and the fact that the cow speaks to Bata and not to Anubis shows the great connection to Nature displayed by Bata.  Later, Bata will question why his brother "carried your spear on the testimony of a filthy whore!"

After chasing Bata into the open country, Bata asks the gods for justice, which begins by the opening of a deep chasm between these brothers, allowing them to settle down and think rationally about their words to each other the next morning.  As a penance, Anubis slices his hand open, but Bata cuts off his phallus, which is eaten by the fish, reminiscent of what happened to Osiris.  Why does Bata do this?  Perhaps to show his brother that he is not a threat to his wife, or even as a symbol that a whole new set of adventures awaits him in different forms!  There are a lot of reasons to discuss about this.

After Bata builds a home in the Valley of the Pine, the Ennead walk by and create a wife for Bata out of their fluids.  Interestingly, Bata calls himself a "woman," mainly because he is missing his phallus.  So, I wondered in class, why did the Ennead create a woman for Bata (not a man) knowing Bata's physical limitations?  This is debatable.  Bata doesn't seem to treat her as a good husband would.  Rather, he keeps her confined to their house, and Bata repeatedly warns her not to walk close to the waves, perhaps for fear of losing her.  Metaphorically, Bata is behaving like a woman herself.  He is no longer taking the heroic adventures that men are prone to do (Gilgamesh, Enkidu, Adapa, Osiris, Horus, etc.).  Instead, he sits at home, as does this very bored and unfulfilled woman.

Apparently, Bata's wife was simply used as bait in this story, as we learn that her hair was grabbed by a tree and cast into the waters, making the pharaoh's clothes smell like a fragrant perfume when washed in the waters.  Attracted to this mysterious odor, the pharaoh is advised that this sign must be a "greeting," or an invitation for him to seek her out.  He does, but Bata kills most of the troops that the king sent to the Valley of the Pine.  After being tempted by jewelry, Bata's woman travels to Egypt to become the pharaoh's newest mistress (which illustrates how shallow she is), although I can't blame her for leaving Bata to become the wife of pharaoh.  When asked about her husband, the woman simply requested that the pine trees be cut down, mainly because Bata's heart is metaphorically resting on a pine blossom, perhaps suggesting his attachment to nature (again, a feminine concept).  Cutting down the pine will kill her husband (who never treated her as a partner anyway).  The story progresses to include several odd requests from this woman, which we will discuss in a moment.

Meanwhile, Anubis sees the signs that tell him to help his brother, which he does.  Devoting four years to finding Bata's heart, Anubis locates it and revives it in a bowl of water, which Bata consumes, bringing him back to life!  Notice that water (a feminine quality) appears to be exactly what Bata needs to resurrect  Bata then plans a course of action with Anubis that will bring them into power in Egypt, while seeking justice on the woman who treated him so badly.  Bata will assume the form of a giant lapis bull, upon which Anubis will ride into town.  Once Anubis presents the bull as a gift to the king, then Bata can begin his vengeance (or is it justice?).

He confronts the woman in the kitchen, who becomes horrifies that Bata has taken on a new form.  She requests that the pharaoh make a great sacrifice of this bull, even though it was the king's most prized possession (which, ironically, is the best thing to sacrifice to the gods).  The pharaoh listens to the whim of this woman, and slaughters the bull.  However, a drop of blood from its neck mingles with the ground to create two giant persea trees, which become the king's next most prized possessions.  However, the woman once again finds out that the trees are Bata, so she asks the king to hew them down to create furniture out of them.  A splinter from the wood, however, enters the woman's mouth, ultimately making her become pregnant with a boy (Bata) who will ultimately seek justice against her and place the kingdom into better hands.

One question that we discussed involved why the pharaoh listened to this woman when she asked him to sacrifice his most prized possessions.  Many pinpointed the concept of lust or passion as the culprit.  The king simply found this woman to be irresistible, so he followed her words blindly.  Joseph Campbell tells us that the word "compassion" is really traced back to the words com- (meaning "with") and passion (meaning "suffering").  As we will learn in our next unit, passion = suffering.  This king's passion (or lust) has prevented him from making rational decisions.  In fact, the pharaoh seems most interested in material possessions rather than anything else.  The same can be said for Bata's woman, who was lured away from Bata by the pharaoh's jewelry.  Bata, meanwhile, never seemed to care much for the material world -- he lost his stable, his penis, his woman, his life, and his physical bodies, yet he always existed.  The Egyptians believed that mortals could communicate with the ka spirits of the dead, giving credence to the idea that the body is simply one of many possessions.  The soul or spirit cannot be possessed, however, except by lust, greed, or fear.

As Egypt became a wealthier country, while the people felt more and more entitled to an afterlife, lessons such as this were intended to make mankind think more carefully about their material things and the place they have in our lives.  Identifying one's self with money and wealth will make one lose something more valuable in the end.  On the journey to the Duat, those people who ignored the growth and development of their spirits and their moralities would be doomed to nonexistence.  No money in the universe could bribe the gods out of their decision to terminate a worthless soul!
 

The Book of Thoth

A similar message can be gleaned from The Book of Thoth, a story about an arrogant and eager prince who desires to learn about the secrets of the gods.  Although Setna is warned by many people, his desire takes him too far down a dangerous path.  In the tomb of Nefrekeptah, Setna speaks with the spirits of both Nefrekeptah and his wife Ahura, who tells the story of their demise due to Nefrekeptah's lust for Thoth's knowledge.

She explains how her husband, despite the warnings, paid a priest 100 bars of silver to divulge the location of the text, resting in the bottom of the Nile, surrounded by boxes locked inside other boxes, and guarded by serpents and scorpions.  Nefrekeptah commanded his magic rope to locate and fetch the boxes to the surface.  Cleverly thwarting the serpents, Nefrekeptah read the scrolls, copied their spells, and drank the liquid containing the ink (to literally consume the knowledge).  Nefrekeptah became the wisest man in Egypt, and he counseled people from all over the world who sought his advice on matters ranging from government business to personal issues.  After recalling the three tragedies that took the lives of her husband, son, and herself, Ahura begs Setna to turn away, but Setna's arrogance and greed are too strong.

One scene that is particularly interesting is where Nefrekeptah challenges Setna to a game of Senet, an ancient Egyptian board game, described in this web site: http://www.fortunecity.com/victorian/lion/193/Senet.html.  Hoping to win the Book of Thoth back from Setna, Nefrekeptah plays this game, which punishes Setna each time he loses a piece on the game board (first he sinks into the ground to his knees, then to his waist, and then to his neck).  However, Setna's brother simply uses his magic to break free from the spells of the dead spirits.  After all, Setna had threatened to take the book by force anyway if he could not receive it by asking for it.  Essentially, Setna must learn his lesson the hard way -- through experience.

Well, as you might have guessed, Setna becomes tempted by a beautiful woman who walks into town.  Suddenly, Setna can no longer eat or sleep properly, due to the lusty thoughts of this woman.  He writes to her and is eventually allowed to meet her.  He finds out that she is a cat goddess, daughter of Bast.  He is so in lust with her that he allows her to convince him to kill his wife and to feed his children to the cats (to eliminate any jealousy or competition between families).  However, this is all a bad dream, sent to Setna to show him the folly of his ways before he does something too stupid.  He accurately understands that the dream was a warning, and he returns the book to its proper place.  After one final adventure where he helps Nefrekeptah's family to be buried together, Setna becomes absolved of his wrongdoing.

One interesting feature of this story is that Setna is not simply killed by the gods for his transgressions.  Perhaps because he is the son of a great pharaoh, or perhaps because the gods know that his intentions are good, Setna is let go after a harsh warning.  Maybe this suggests that true wisdom cannot be commanded onto another person, but rather that experience matters most.  We also learn that certain wisdom is relegated only to the gods and goddesses.  Mortals can never know the deepest secrets of the gods, lest we become gods ourselves.

The Story of the Green Jewel

This story shows the Egyptian belief in magic, which is the means of manipulating physical space with special words. In this simple tale, the pharaoh is depressed and seeks to become entertained by rowing in his boat (actually, 20 virgins are rowing for him). The pleasant afternoon is interrupted when one of the oars knocks off one of the women's earrings into the lake. She stops rowing and pleads for her earring back, but what can the pharaoh do? Luckily, the court scribe is also traveling in the boat, and he parts the lake with his magical spells. The earring is retrieved, and all is well again. Notice that the scribe is the keeper of the knowledge, as the Egyptians believed that words could act as divine tools to transform the physical world. Since the scribes were keepers of the knowledge, this seems to make sense.

Although this is a simple tale, you should obviously must begin thinking about this story as a precursor to the story of Moses parting the Red Sea as he led the Israelites from their Egyptian captivity. Although the Moses story is clearly unique in literature, we need to see the connection to its Egyptian roots. The Old Testament combines many influences from Mesopotamia and Egypt, so look for these now that you have become better versed in mythology. Very few episodes in the Old Testament involve the type of magic used to part the sea, so this scene appears to be unusual and not at all typical of Judaic textuality.

The Wax Crocodile

I could use one of these wax crocodiles, couldn't you? This tale again demonstrates the Egyptian love of magical incantations. The scribe again becomes the magic man. When informed about his wife's infidelity with an unnamed youth, he creates a wax crocodile that can spring to life at his command. He asks the butler to throw the crocodile into the water, which then becomes animated, grasping the youth and taking him away.

The scribe then visits the pharaoh to show him the evidence of the transgressions of the youth and his wife. Amazed at the evidence, the pharaoh commands the crocodile to grab the youth and send him to his death. After this, the wife is burned at the stake. Notice that the pharaoh is the character who determines the fate of these two adulterers, not the scribe. However, the scribe is the one who really owns the power, possibly suggesting that the scribes were the "right-hand men" of the kings.

I hope that you have enjoyed some of the great tales from ancient Egypt.

Announcements:

Here is your Test 3 Study Guide

We will begin next Friday's class with the test after I pass back Quiz 8. We will then begin our look at Eastern philosophy and its connection to the literature that we have read. Although I list some readings for next week's class, your first priority is clearly the test. You should try to become familiar with some of the ideas on Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism, however, so that you are not lost next Friday after the test.

I have posted some available office hours on my appointment calendar. You can find it on the Class Info page. The areas shaded in pink are still available -- open door policy (just stop by). Otherwise, I have several conferences with my composition students.

If you feel that you need to sit down with me for a private meeting of significant length, please send me an e-mail and we can arrange something.

Regarding the coursepackets, I found out yesterday that several students have waited for two weeks to receive their packets that still have not yet arrived. I wish that you would have said something to me earlier. There is absolutely no reason why you have been asked to wait. I believe that you have been victimized by some ill-informed people in the KSU Bookstore. If you are still getting the run-around, please call Patty Sansom, the Bookstore textbook coordinator (770-499-3511). She will help solve your problem (and please know that she did not cause the delays and likely just found out about them, so don't be angry with her!). Please let me know if you still are having difficulties acquiring the materials.

Due Next Time:

TEST 3: Ancient Egypt

Western vs. Eastern Thinking (409)

An Introduction to Eastern Philosophies (410-414)

The Vinegar Tasters (415)

Taoism (416-417)

Voices of Taoism (427-430)

Confucianism (431)

Voices of Confucianism (450-453)

Buddhism (454)

The Story of the Buddha (455-457)

Voices of Buddhism (473-476)

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