Today's Topics: 

Today we began the last unit on Far Eastern literature. Before diving into the readings, I wanted to introduce you to the concepts of Eastern philosophy.

I covered the distinctions between Eastern and Western thinking (see page 409 in the coursepacket). Eastern thinking differs from Western thinking in many ways, and our ability to understand these concepts will enhance our understanding of the semester's final unit.  The differences listed on this page are general ideas, not necessarily representative of specific denominations. Just like Christianity, many varied versions of Hunduism and Buddhism exist, so no generalization can fully explain individual concepts. 

Essentially, I attempted to illustrate that Westerners tend to think in stright lines, but Easterners think more in circles.  For instance, consider the following schematic:

A  ------> B

This is the type of thinking that is linear, direct, and goal-oriented.  What matters most is achieving the goal (B) from your starting point (A).  Although Eastern philosophies tend to also move from point A to point B, this usually does not occur in a straight line.  Imagine the flight of a butterfly hopping from flower to flower.  It does not fly in straight lines, but rather loops, pivots, twists, and turns.  A butterfly's path is erratic, confusing, and fluid, rather than the direct flight of an arrow.   To an Eastern thinker, the goal (point B) is not the most important part of the process -- the journey is.  This is also what Gilgamesh had to learn -- he thought that his goal (immortality) was attainable, but after he realized that it was not, he then settled for what he learned through his experiences.  So do we.

Western philosophies typically operate in straight lines, and the East tends to run in circles.  The starting point on a circle is also the end point too, and vice versa. Much like the death of the pharaoh begins his afterlife journey, every end starts anew. Tiamat was changed from the ocean to the earth and sky. Dumuzi's human form was killed, but his angelic form began.

Using this concept, we can also apply them to these two Chinese philosophies, Taoism and Confucianism.  These philosophies are opposite in almost every way, but they do not (and camnot) dominate over the other side. Taoism is the feminine philosophy and Confucianism the masculine. This is similar to the distinction between Western and Eastern thinking:

 |      CONFUCIANISM
 O     TAOISM
 
Over the years, the Chinese adopted both philosophies simultaneously, seeking the balance between both ideals.  Just like we learned earlier that straight lines and circles belong together, the union of these philosophical practices bonded together naturally.  Confucianism provided the laws and the stability, while Taoism allowed for fluid experiences that are more akin to real life.  Much like the yin and yang, these two philosophies formed the backbone of China for many years to come, and even today. 

Taoism

Unlike most Western philosophies that conflict with each other, many Eastern mentalities overlap one another and complement each other.  Two such philosophies are Taoism and Confucianism.  For an illustration, recall the yin/yang symbol.  Taoism is very yin (water, go with the flow, bend but don't break, liberal), while Confucianism is essentially yang (bold, steadfast, resolute, unwavering, hard, conservative).  Sometimes, when philosophies conflict in a given culture, they often lead to dispute and conflict.  However, Confucianism and Taoism seemingly need each other.  They work together to demonstrate that life demands that we act differently, given our circumstances.  These philosophies cooperate, rather than conflict.  They are two methods of achieving the same things -- peace and harmony in our lives.

These philosophies, by the way, do not incorporate any god -- they are secular principles, not divine ones.  Neither Confucius nor Lao Tzu believed in a "god," per se, although they do in an abstract way -- God as a reflection of the totality of the universe (often considered to be Tao).  Although these philosophies are not religions, there are several religions that have developed around them.  In this class, I will focus exclusively on the philosophical aspects of these readings, not the rituals, as usual. I will show the meditative tone of a Chinese poem, but I cannot teach you how to meditate.

Examine some of the main principles of Taoism on pages 416-417. The main concept is that we should go with the flow of Nature. Everything has its place and purpose, and we should adapt ourselves around our environment. Much like water, we need to adapt and be flexible, such as we learned in The Oak and the Reed.

One main concept common to all Eastern philosophies is that we should strive to relinquish our attachments to material things, especially our own selves. Think back to the diagram of Martin Buber's I/Thou philosophy. If you recall, the diagram consisted of three concentric circles representing the I (in the middle), the Thou (the next outlying circle), and the It (the outermost circle). To Easterners, the material world is an illusion. The material world is not permanent. A Taoist saying goes like this: "Change is the law of life." The earth will come and go, but the energy of life and the essence of the Tao (the universal spirit force, if you will) will never not exist. The forms will change in the material world, but life goes on in a never-ending cycle.

In the East, the I/Thou diagram changes. This time, draw a circle. Inside, write the following: "I / Thou / It." All three concepts belong in the same circle, because there really is no distinction amongst them. I am not you in material space, but we are one in the spirit world. Each of us is connected to the Tao force, the universal essence, and therefore we are all ultimately made of the same stuff. Our differences only appear in this world. Therefore, never trust appearances, but always look at the soul. After all, what people say is illusory; their hearts, though, never lie.

To help us to reach this philosophy easier, I passed around one of my favorite books, The Tao of Pooh, by Benjamin Hoff, to illustrate Taoism in familiar terms.  This author takes the original A. A. Milne characters of Winnie the Pooh and his friends in the Hundred Acre Wood.  Hoff shows that Pooh is a Taoist, but the other characters are not.  Pooh goes with the flow, bumbling about, not forcing his way through the world.  Taoists adhere to Nature's rules and structures, which are perfect, and Pooh Bear doesn't fight against them.  Piglet is too apprehensive and intimidated by the world, Tigger is assertive and out of control, and Wise Old Owl doesn't have a clue what he's talking about!  One classic scene shows Pooh acquiring his "hunny" by reaching his head and arms into a big hole in a tree, where he finds several honey pots for the taking.  He eats and eats until he becomes too fat, getting stuck in the hole of the tree.  Whereas Piglet and Rabbit try to pull Pooh's legs or stuff him inside the tree by pushing on his butt, Pooh's ultimate solution to his problem is very Taoist -- he simply lets Nature take its course!  He'll lose the weight eventually ... the natural way!

In fact, the Chinese have a concept that they call P'u, which means the "uncarved block."  Carving a block of wood imprints upon it the marks of society, but it is better to leave Nature as it is, according to Taoism.  (NOTE: This concept and others are described on page 417 in the coursepacket). 

I also addressed a concept called wu wei, which means "non-action."  Taoists try to go through life with as little resistance as possible, meaning that the term "non-action" pertains to unnecessary actions, such as speaking when you have nothing to say.  Water, for example, naturally runs downhill, allowing the force of gravity to pull it down.  Therefore, knowing this, why do we try to pump water UPhill?  Although it's a technological marvel, we are violating Nature's unwritten code by forcing water to act in a way foreign to its nature.  A Taoist would simply ask, "Can't you just go down to the river to get your water?" When we push things too far, we create problems. If you are not interested in school, for example, then why are you here? If you are not athletic, then why did you try out for the varsity team? Every entity has its nature, so let Nature dictate your life. Drift with the current. Don't resist it.

A famous Chinese tale describes two men. One is resting beneath a tree. He is our Taoist in this story; the second man is not. While the Taoist rests, the other guy arrives, ready to eat some lunch. He begins to cut down the tree with his ax. This forces the Taoist to ask his friend what he is doing. "I'm cutting down the tree to make a picnic table so that we can eat out lunch." The Taoist, however, follows the P'u concept: let the uncarved block be left untouched. The Taoist convinces the other man that he is going against the nature of things. After all, the tree is meant to provide shade and a comfortable place under which they can eat.

Confucianism, however, is the opposite.

Confucianism

Confucius was a man who valued knowledge and virtue, as these were two attributes that separated more civilized people from the others.  Confucius was not a fan of his society, which he believed was out of step with the Tao as well as civility.  Notice that Confucianism (and Buddhism) accept the Tao as a basic principle of the universe.  You will see many references to the Tao in poems inspired by all three Eastern philosophies.  Confucius desired to live a simpler and more structured life, based on the models of civility established by his ancestors.  In Confucius' time, his country was locked in a war with its neighbors that had lasted several generations.  Confucius believed that his society was out of step with virtue, so he set out to instruct others about leading a life that adhered to his ancestors' social structures.  See the basic beliefs of Confucianism on page 431.

In ancient China, the man was the head of the household, and his wife obeyed his will.  The children had to listen to their mothers and fathers, and everyone in the home (and the community) played very specific roles, without wavering from them.  If everyone did his or her part, then social order would be maintained and harmony would result.  Once one person became corrupt, then the house of cards could fall down.  Therefoe, if the leaders were strong, stable, and wise, then they could serve as role models for their followers, who, in turn, needed to demonstrate the same level of excellence in their particular occupations.  Like a well-oiled machine, Confucianism outlines the guidelines for following these rules.

Respect for parents is just one of many important concepts and ideals promoted by Confucianism, as are the Golden Rule and the concept of the Superior Man. I told the story of my high school friend and college roommate, a Korean guy whose family was very ethnic, having arrived 20 years earlier from the East. I recalled one day at his house when we were watching TV. One moment, his grandfather walked into the room to sit dow. Immediately, my friend sprang up from his seat and moved to the far corner of the room. He allowed his grandfather to choose any seat that he wanted, out of deference to his superior status. His grandfather chose the warm spot where my friend had been sitting. My friend then took a space on the floor, making me feel somewhat uncomfortable, as I was still seated on the couch. This idea comes from Confucianism.

It is interesting to note that many former students have commented the Confucian scripture, The Analects, as pearls of wisdom that sound like "fortune cookie" advice.  Interestingly enough, the fortune cookie was a 20th century American invention, not a Chinese one.  Any philosophical messages found in fortune cookies are merely trying to replicate the wisdom of Confucius.

I also introduced Buddhism.

Buddhism

To Buddha, book knowledge could not extinguish the pain and suffering of out lives, so it must not be the most important part of wisdom.  One's experiences, however, allow us to test that knowledge and make it meaningful to us.  Remember Adam and Eve?  They KNEW not to eat of the fruit, but they lacked the experiences of life and were blind to the consequences.  Gilgamesh KNEW that he would not be able to attain eternal life, but he had to try (experience it) before he understood.  We KNOW that college would be different from high school, but we had to live the experience to be able to assess it properly.

Buddha (the real one) was born to aristocratic parents, and was to become a king one day.  His father, however, never wanted his son, Siddhartha Gotama, to feel the pains of life, so he sheltered him from life experiences.  One day, Siddhartha escaped from the confinement of his palace and ventured out into the streets, where he saw poverty, sickness, and death for the first time.  He grew depressed, and sought to conquer the ultimate pain of death.  He devoted 6 years to studying ascetism (giving up all possessions, living the spiritual life of a hermit or beggar), but did not arrive at the answers to his questions.  Finally, he sat beneath the Bo tree for 49 days, battling all forms of temptation (Mara) and illusions of the physical world (maya).  Finally, he emerged from his meditation as an Enlightened person -- the Buddha.  As the Enlightened One, Buddha was no longer ensnared by the temptations of the physical world, even though he belonged to it, just like you and me.  By detaching himself from the world's pain and suffering, he was able to experience constant joy (spiritual joy).

There are a few terms that need to be understood before we can apply the wisdom of Buddhists to the readings.  Many of these concepts are simply borrowed from Hinduism, which we will examine in the next few weeks.  One important concept is reincarnation (the idea of carnal rebirth into a new form).  Many Easterners believe that the soul inside a body leaves the body at the moment of death, and is rebirthed into another body afterward (be it a human or a lesser animal).  The direction of this rebirth is dependent upon the lessons that the soul still needs to learn.  For example, a person who eats "like a pig" might need to be reincarnated into a pig form to better understand its perspective, therefore avoiding this "piggish" behavior in a future life when reincarneted eventually into another human body.

Another important Eastern concept is karma (action, cause and effect).  One's karma is the ripple effetcs of one's behaviors.  If you treat people generously, they will return the favor.  If you snap at people on a very bad day, the people whom you yell at will slide into a bad mood as well.  Karma is not about "moods," however.  Your actions have impacts not only on those who directly receive it, but also on those who indirectly receive it, which could mean that one person's hurtful words affect thousands of people indirectly.  Karma may come back to you at any time, either in this life or your future lives.  One's unresolved karmas at the moment of death will determine which form the soul will enter.  This also helps to explain why good people who lead moral lives sometimes suffer bad fortune -- they will get a better life repayed to them down the line!

Additionally, Buddhists believe in the Hindu concept of dharma, which is best defined as "sacred duty."  We all have been given various talents, and to follow those talents would keep us on our intended path.  If we are destined to become something, then we ought to follow that path, not push ourselves away from it.  Therefore, if you were born a slave, then be the best slave that you can possibly be.  If you are born as a horse or a cockroach, then do your best.  To Easterners, it's not whether or not you win or lose, but how you play the game.  When we play the game of life as the universe intended, then we best follow our dharma.  This is similar to the parable of the talents.

Buddhists also believe in the concept of nirvana, which is best described as an extinguishing of the flame of life.  Since a flame on a candle flickers and is subject to the air currents in the room, it is really vulnerable to the surrounding environment.  If the flame could detach itself from the troubles and waves of despair around it, then it could exist in a more peaceful state.  If you think of your birthday cake candles as being on fire (which they are), and then blown out.  The candles no longer burn, but rather enter a state of peace and tranquility.  In other words, achieving nirvana is an extinguishing of our lives -- not our spiritual lives, which continue on indefinitely, but our physical lives that lead us to death and more rebirth.  We will see that detachment from the physical world will allow a soul to connect better to the spiritual world, without the distractions of hunger, thirst, sex drive, want of possessions, etc. 

One's greatest possession is the self, called atman in Buddhism. Atman is the Buddhist version of the soul, but not an individual soul like we say in Egypt that transports to the heavens to continue life as an individual. Rather, the atman is the soul that is connected to the all, the universe, and the spiritual energies that make up everything. The self is an illusion, and the fact that you are even aware of the self forces you into a world of duality, the world that separated me from you. If we see each other as separate from one another, then we must compete against each other. If, however, we see our neighbor as ourselves, then we tend to treat the other with respect and dignity. Joseph Campbell explains that the concept of bowing with hands folded in the prayer position comes from Buddhism: one person is acknowledging the god inside the other. Buddha tells us to "love thy neighbor as thyself because thy neighbor is thyself."

Buddhists also believe in the concept of following the Middle Path, which is a state of being in which you refuse to allow your emotional attachments to drag you too high or too low.  Let's face it, most of our pain and frustration comes from our own selves, especially when our idealism runs into a collision course with the realities of life.  Buddha had been raised in affluence, then gave up everything to live the life of an austere monk, but he discovered that both were problematic, because they denied the good that accomanies both sides as well.  We should eat, but not too little or too much.  This applies to everything, by the way, much like we say in Gilgamesh, where Enkidu was created to balance out Gilgamesh's overly masculine behaviors. By striving for the Middle Way, we will avoid the extremes of temptation and suffering. 

A good example is bringing home a puppy.  This might be the happiest day of your childhood.  However, the puppy eventually lives its life, then it dies.  As happy as we were on the first day, it is replaced with sadness after its death.  In the totality of the universe, all of these emotions even out.  Finding the Middle Path was difficult for Gilgamesh, who lived his life in the extremes of one side of the duality. 

I also used the example of American sports bars.  Walk inside, and you will see hundreds of rabid fans wearing their team colors, living and dying with every pitch or pass.  Many walk out angry and frustrated when their team loses, which seems to defeat the purpose of why we get involved with sports teams in the first place -- to enjoy ourselves!  I once asked class, "Who hates the Yankees?"  After several hands went up, I wondered out loud why we "hate" a team of athletes?  One student in each class said, "Because they always win."  So, why do we "hate" the achievement of success?  Maybe because those who are not Yankees fans have sold their allegiances to other teams.  But who cares if your team wins or loses?  Why should this really matter?  We could be devoting our energies elsewhere.  Following the Middle Path would allow us to be more detached from the sensory highs and lows that cause us just as much grief as pleasure.

The Four Noble Buddhist Truths form the foundation of the belief (see page 454).  Notice that the first one tells us that life is pain.  Buddha believed that the world was filled with sensory traps that distract us from our spiritual paths.  The more we commit to the pleasures of the physical world, the more we have to accept the inevitable pain that goes along with it.  Remember, we live in a world of dualities that bears fruit equally on the sides of good and bad.  Lust, greed, and hunger are all used as examples of sensory traps in The Dhammapada.  We can feed ourselves to satisfy our hunger, but then we might be tempted to stuff ourselves further with dessert.  After we have endulged, time passes, and we feel the hunger all over again.  Ever go to the refrigerator, open it up, and then realize that you're not hungry?  Why do we do this?  We've been trapped by our physical temptations!

The next of the Four Noble Truths tells us that our desires lead to rebirth (reincarnation, which forces us to live through the pains of childhood and development all over again).  If we fall prey to our desires, then we are clearly deviating from our spiritual paths, forcing us to live yet another life in order to learn these lessons properly.  The third Truth tells us that we can escape this viscious cycle by detaching ourselves from the material world, and the fourth provides eight types of proper behaviors that Buddhists strive to attain -- right belief, thought, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and meditation.  We will see these concepts illustrated in our final reading of the semester, Siddhartha.

A final interesting fact presents itself here too.  Notice that all three of these Eastern philosophies were founded around the same time -- the 5th century BCE.  Although they sprang up independently, this proximity in time suggests that China and India were undergoing a philosophical revival.  This same transformation was happening in Greece, where the age of Greek philosophy was born around the same time -- Aristotle, Socrates, and Plato were also contemporaries of Lao Tzu, Confucius, and Buddha, although none of these men apparently met each other. 

Announcements:

Everyone should now have a coursepacket.

Also, I will not return the tests on Monday. My weekend is packed with other obligations. I will try to get them finished by next Wednesday's class.

Due Next Time:

The Tao Te Ching of Lao Tzu (418-426)

Voices of Taoism (427-430)

The Analects of Confucius (432-449)

Voices of Confucianism (450-453)

The Dhammapada of Buddha (458-472)

Voices of Buddhism (473-476)

Quiz 9 (DUE Wed. 4/12)

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