Today's Topics: 

Today we reviewed some Chinese poetry from pages 479-508 and discussed their influences from Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism.

"Garden," by Li Yu (page 500)
This is a clear example of a Taoist poem. Look for the harmony that man has with Nature -- a clear indication of Taoist thought. In the middle of the poem, we see the "washerwoman's pounding / Mingles with the wind," illustrating harmony with her surroundings. In the final few lines, the sleepless man hears "intermittent noises" that are delivered to him "by the moonlight," almost as if Nature is looking out for us.

"The Way to the Temple," by Wang Wei (page 506)
Although the opening stanza may give the indication that this poem is Taoist in influence, look at the second stanza more closely. A Taoist would not refer to the sunset as "cold," nor as something that "drowns in the lake." Look at the way that Nature is being used in the poem, not just the fact that an outdoor setting exists. The real thread of this poem can be found again in the last few lines where the reference to karma gives it away as a Buddhist poem. Buddhists are constantly looking out for sensory attachment to the world (e.g., "dragons") so that they can focus on relinquishing these attachments in order to achieve peace and tranquility.

"Ten Years It Took," by Song Sun (page 502)
Another Taoist voice is heard in this poem.  This guy takes ten years to build some dilapidated shack for a house, apparently by haphazardly plopping wood planks together without measuring them or filling up the holes in the walls and ceiling.  His handiwork is so poor that he can still feel the "cool wind" and see the "moonlight" from the inside.  A Confucianist would shame this man for his terrible carpentry, but this Taoist is pleased since he can still touch his natural surroundings from his dwelling.  In fact, he further wishes that "the mountains and the stream" could join him inside his shelter, but, since they are too large, will have to remain outside!  Instead of progress, perfection, or capitalism, this Taoist simply wants to "be."   Admire this man's contentment and attachment to Nature.

"Lao-Tzu," by Po Chu-I (page 507)
By quoting Lao Tzu, the author of the Taoist Tao Te Ching, the author of this poem is questioning the potential hypocrisy of Lao Tzu's message -- why use words to communicate the Tao when you said earlier that the wisest people use the fewest words? A Taoist would not question the Tao, as they would rather go with the flow and let it be. A Buddhist too would not care about this issue, since dwelling on the finer definitions of words is a matter for the material world, not the spiritual one. This poem is clearly Confucianist, evidenced by the hair-splitting and inquisitive demeanor of the author, who seems intent on disproving Taoism, the opposite philosophy to Confucianism.

"Grass," by Po Chu-I (page 486)
In this poem, the grass is burning, but not dying. Whether man is enacting a controlled burn or if its is a natural occurrence, the grass will be reborn next Spring. Its scent permeates the air and travels a great distance, leading us to the last few lines where the author parts ways with his "friend," perhaps the personification of the grass itself. This poem is clearly Taoist due to Nature operating in its typical cycle: birth, life, death, rebirth.

"Walking in the Countryside," by Wang An-Shih (page 484)
Although the first few lines seem to represent Taoism, nothing Taoist is really happening in this poem. Again, don't be lured in by a natural setting and jump to the conclusion that the poem is Taoist. After all, most of these poems are set outdoors. Look at the overall message of the poem, which is found in the last few lines: the author questions why the people, although hard workers, are going hungry when the caterpillars seem to have enough to eat. This criticism is Confucianist because it questions the social order, status, and effectiveness of the people to govern themselves. If directed by good leadership, the people should be well taken care of, just like Nature takes care of itself too. Confucianists focus on people, their social settings, and their decision-making abilities. Obviously, something went wrong here, and Nature is not to blame.

"Bound Home to Mount Song," by Wang Wei (page 489)
The Taoist influences of this poem should be evident. The river is called the "fellow voyager" of the traveling author. Notice how the harmony with Nature is established by having the journeyman's path paralleled by the Naturally flowing river. In Eastern literature, the river is often the most significant of all natural references, as it represents the flow of life and time. By following in the path of Nature, the traveler arrives home late, but at peace.

"Birthday," by Li Yu (page 495)
Here is a poem in which the author has grown old and is realizing his advanced age by "celebrating" another birthday. He asks questions about how the time flew by so fast, noticing his wrinkled skin and his few remaining days left to live. Taoists would not dwell on these issues, and a Confucianist would gain little knowledge by reflecting on the obvious. This is a Buddhist poem for the fact that the author is acknowledging his sadness and his imminent death, which, like a river, pushes him forward into a new life after his rebirth. Yes, there is a reference to the river in the last line, but this again does not mean that the poem must be Taoist. A student asked today why this poem was so depressing, so let me clarify that Buddhist poems are not depressing, although they touch upon realistic topics, and these lessons may be hard to swallow sometimes. Remember that Buddhists believe first that the condition of life is ultimately one of pain and suffering, but that this suffering is only caused by one's attachments to the material world, not because bad things are happening to them. If the poem appears to be depressing to you, maybe this is your perception caused by your own attachment to youth and life. This poem acknowledges the cycle of life and death, called samsara, which must be realized if you are going to have any chance of overcoming it.

"Blaming Sons," by Tao Ch'ien (page 485)
You should clearly see the Confucianist bent to this poem. The father is criticizing his five sons, all for their laziness and lack of interest in studying. He is not letting go, nor is he going with the flow by allowing his sons to have their own nature. A Taoist would acknowledge that each son brings unique qualities to the family, but this Confucianist author has higher aspirations for his children, although they are all failing at it.

"Dreaming That I Climb the Mountain," by Po Chu-I (page 508)
Perhaps this poem is one of our most profound in the collection.  A Buddhist perspective is seen here.  Po Chü-I is crippled, and therefore can no longer walk freely or without pain.  He comments, however, on these amazing dreams that he has, where he is able to walk up the mountains with ease.  When he awakens, he finds himself paralyzed, since reality confronts us during our waking hours.  He philosophizes that he has lost nothing, since his life is now reversed in a philosophical way.  Before, when he was healthy, he was able to walk while awake, but sleep would deprive him of his mobility.  Now that he is older and injured, he cannot walk while awake, but this "reality" is compensated by his abilities to scale the mountain sides in his dreams.  In other words, since "time is divided equally" between waking and sleeping, he has not lost his ability to "walk" since his dreams now compensate for his lack of physical mobility.  He concludes that "[f]orm and spirit are both illusions," suggesting that whether he climbs the mountain during his waking "reality" or his dreamworld fantasies, both are illusions anyway; therefore, "[n]othing is lost." Classic Buddhism. Notice that this poem is not depressing, but is rather uplifting and inspirational.

"Answering the Vice-Prefect Chang," by Wang Wei (page 499)
I also placed a different translation next to this poem.  I had encountered several translations when compiling the coursepacket, and I thought that seeing two distinct versions of this famous poem might be a good experience.  Again, this poem has a Buddhist bent, seen in the opening lines where the speaker yearns for peace and detachment from the "ten thousand matters."  The last two lines again show influences from philosophical Buddhism.  After someone asks about success or failure, Wang Wei merely asks Chang to listen quietly to the fisherman on the lake singing.  Does it matter whether or not the fisherman is successful?  No.  Remember that, to Buddhists, it is not whether you win or lose, but how you play the game.  The fisherman appears to be enjoying himself, and he may not be aware that he has not caught anything today or if his bait has fallen off the hook.

"Ripe Plums Are Falling" (page 503)
This is our oldest poem, predating our three Eastern philosophies.  In each stanza, more and more ripe plums fall from the tree.  This symbolizes the passing of time, and even the ticking of this woman's biological clock.  She yearns for a husband, but she knows that she is aging rapidly and her prospects are becoming fewer and fewer by the day.  Although this poem was written hundreds of years before Taoism, Confucianism, or Buddhism, it still incorporates all three philosophies, indicating that these philosophical seeds were planted in the East for thousands of years.  A Taoist might look at the falling plums as Nature's way of reminding us about time or our mortality.  A Confucianist would be pleased to hear that this woman wishes to conform to society's standards of marriage.  A Buddhist would look at the painful passing of time and the wrinkled faces of aging that deny us our beauty, our power, and our happiness.

"Sick Leave," by Li Po (page 485)
Many poems will include more than one voice, allowing you to recognize different origins. The next few poems reflect this blending of various perspectives. Here is a poem where a government official is working so hard that he only gets a day off work when he is sick.  The last two lines tell us that the clouds bring shame "to a face that is buried in the world's dust."  This line has both Buddhist and Taoist voices imbedded.  The Buddhist would look at labor in the material world as nothing but a quest for dust, since all physical things turn to dust.  A Taoist may also say that working extensive hours seems to violate the suggestions made by Nature.  Therefore, here is a poem that incorporates both of these voices in the same line.

"The Chariots Go Forth to War," by Tu Fu (page 480)
This war poem shows the sights and sounds of Chinese chariot warfare.  Our author is the father of a son who has been conscripted into battle, and this man laments on the state of affairs surrounding the politics at the time.  He refers to the soldiers facing great adversity, but that they also "have not the heart to complain" -- a clear Confucian reference, since these soldiers go along with what their leader tells them.  The father, however, questions the wisdom of war, and therefore may be speaking with greater Buddhist overtones.

"Night in the Watchtower," by Tu Fu (page 482)
Here is a poem about war that contains both Taoist and Buddhist reflections.  The first four lines describe the cold, frosty season of winter.  This is a Taoist ideal, since winter would be the most appropriate time for a war to break out, since the season of winter implies cold, hard, dead things.  Spring is the season of love and romance, summer the apex of life, and autumn the decay on to death.  If a Taoist wanted to fight a war, he would want to listen to the Tao, which might suggest that winter is the best season for war, leading by example.  This author, however, also used Buddhist-inspired passages when he reflects on the distant woman screaming (remember that Buddhists appreciate distance from society and its temptations).  Additionally, the last two lines ask the reader to listen to the sounds of fighting in the distance, referred to as the "tumult" of the world.  Buddhists like to break away from the chaos and the loudness of people and societies, since these are the greatest sources of earthly temptation.

Remember the primary differences amongst these philosophies. The following text is repeated from the last class summary, for your convenience:

TAOISM

Taoists believe in following the rules of Nature, referred to as "the Tao," or "the Way."  Nature, after all, tells us everything that we need to know about life.  The season of autumn tells us that all things in Nature decay and pass on.  This may be a harsh reality, but we learn this over and over by watching these cycles in action.  Taoists want to "go with the flow," referred to as the concept of wu wei, and they seek to perform only those actions that are necessary, especially ones that follow the lead of the Tao (this concept is called "P'u," the "uncarved block").

CAVEAT: Be careful on the quiz where I ask you to identify the Eastern voices in the poetry. Many students will use hackneyed (overused) phrases to describe Taoism, such as "one with Nature" or "getting back to Nature."  If you use these generic explanations on a quiz or test, I will look at these expressions as being too general to describe anything that you have learned.  After all, what does "one with Nature" really mean anyway?  Instead, state that Taoists follow Nature or seek their cues from it. 

Also, be sure to avoid jumping to conclusions: every time that a reference is made to Nature does not confirm the voice of Taoism.  Jesus told the Parable of the Fig Tree, which is a reference to Nature, but Jesus was not Taoist (although many threads of Taoism have worked their way into the teachings too).  Any author can use Nature metaphors, but that does not categorize their statements as necessarily Taoist.  See HOW Nature is used by the poet.  When Nature seems to parallel or assist the human experience, that's usually where we see Tao leading the way.  Likewise, all three Chinese philosophies make reference to The Tao, since this concept summarizes the power and influence of Nature quite well.
 

CONFUCIANISM

Confucius lived during a time of great turmoil, political corruption, and war.  Like Lao Tzu, Confucius was a pacifist, although both Taoists and Confucianists waged war many times.  Confucius saw his world as out of step with the past regimes that had society under greater control.  Confucius looked at his generation as one that had lost its way, being steeped in corruption, which could only be remedied by adhering to the rules and traditions of their ancestors.  Confucianists defer authority to the state and to the other hierarchical structures in society, including the family, the military, etc.  If everyone plays his/her role adequately, then the well-oiled machine of society can flourish and succeed in peace.  Above all, the leaders of the state, communities, and families should be followed without question.  Although Confucianists may occasionally refer to the Tao, they see the Tao as the precursor of man's law, which is the one to be followed, since it was inspired by the order of Nature.

CAVEAT: It is possible that Confucius merely thought that his generation was out of step with the more organized past, much like many Americans do.  Have you ever heard your grandparents refer to "the Good Ol' Days"?  Well, when exactly were these days?  Many Americans look at the period after World War II as the heyday of America, but didn't we have a society that subjugated women and minorities, fueled by lingering European traditions and the fearmongering of McCarthyism?  Do you really want to live with Ward and June Cleaver?  Maybe we are living in the Good Ol' Days right now?  Who knows?  Hindsight is 20/20.

When identifying Confucianist thinking, look for adherence to traditions and societal rituals that are valid and valuable. If a character in a poem is doing the wrong things or not adhering to the proper details of a tradition, then you may notice a critical tone from the author. Many Confucian poems are critical about people's behaviors, pointing out the things that are wrong. Sometimes, you may even detect some sarcasm in the author's tone as well.
 

BUDDHISM

Buddhists believe that the material world is full of traps, especially emotional attachments that steer us off our spiritual course by distracting us with temptations.  Only by avoiding these connections can we liberate ourselves from the emotional highs and lows that society brings us.  You will often see Buddhists critiquing their material connections and seeking distance from worldly things.  Buddhists strive to achieve nirvana, a state of disaffection where we do not have petty attachments to things since they do not benefit the soul.  Believing in reincarnation, Buddhists often seek to break the cycles of samsara, or the repeating cycle of birth, preservation, and destruction (death).  Since all life ends in death (as well as begins at death), then death is the great evil that must be circumvented through meditation.  If you can defeat death, then you will not be reborn, and you therefore will have no more anxieties or hang-ups about your life, your physical body, or the world that we occupy.

CAVEAT: Many of the early poems listed in your coursepacket are about serious topics, and I don't want you to walk away with the impression that Buddhists like to complain or that they write depressing poetry.  Like Taoists and Confucianists, Buddhists seek peace, love, and understanding.  They are simply more aware of the impacts of the material world on an individual.  Every "depressing" poem is not necessarily a work of Buddhism.  We must also be careful to avoid confusing the concepts of love and passion (suffering/desire).  Buddhism tells us that attachment to desire causes our suffering (the word "passion" means "suffering," by definition), but love transcends desire, since it is mutually shared and conceived by the couple.  For example, a mother can worry about her daughter when she fails to return by her curfew, but is her worrying going to change anything?  Buddhism would suggest relieving one's self from the pain and suffering of worry, giving the mom a clearer head.  However, this does not deny her love for her children.  Love doesn't make us riddled with anxiety -- fear does that to us.
 

Announcements:

Remember that you will NOT be responsible for the contents of any single poem for the final exam.

We will be reading The Ramayana next week (by R. K. Narayan), so be sure to pick up a copy of this text if you have not done so already. There is extensive assistance in the coursepacket to get you started in this story that we will cover during the next three class meetings. You can find this book just about anywhere.

Keep in mind that the first chapter will not seem well connected. I will explain why later, but for now just realize that these tales are excerpts from previous Hindu texts that lead into the narrative of The Ramayana. Next week, I will explain the context of Hinduism and how these vignettes fit into the story.

Also, you might want to dog-ear the character glossary in the front of the book. You will refer to it often. I will explain the Hindu concepts later.

Due Next Time:

Hinduism (514-515)

The Avatars of Vishnu (516-518)

The Ramayana, Prologue and chapters 1-3 (Narayan, 3-64) / READING GUIDE (519-523)

Quiz 10 (DUE Wednesday 19 April)

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